Effects of Childhood Experiences on Self Injurious Behavior in Adulthood

Feminism and Witches essays

Feminism and Witches essays In a history class last year, I was made aware of a movement from some radical feminist groups that claimed the slaughter of innocent women in the 16th and 17th century witch trials as a parallel to the misogynistic persecution they perceive as an integral part of culture today. The use of the inquisition of witches as an analogy for the contemporary subjugation of women is ahistorical due to the evolution of the social dynamics that occurred between the 16th and 20th centuries. The political climate of the 16th and 17th centuries was one of great conflict, with many opposing forces struggling for control. As a patriarchal society, women were not allowed into the forefront of politics, therefore having no direct voice in judicial and societal matters. This made women prime candidates for persecution under a law system completely under the control of males. In early modern Europe, religion had a much more powerful influence upon the lives of the masses than it holds today. Those in the position to receive an education were commonly limited in their endeavors to theological seminary. Those of the traditionally uneducated classes first and foremost women were saturated by the theological interpretations of the religiously educated few. The moral economy of early modern Europe was forged by the hands of those educated by the church and enforced through a fearful reverence of the wrath of God. Ordinary citizens, lacking basic literacy, were compelled to accept the clergys version of Gospel as The Gospel. Today, with the advent of public education and higher literacy rates than ever before seen, the general public has the opportunity to examine liturgy and form individual theological structures. In addition to a more educated populous, the religious community has been forced by the modern idea of separation between church and state to vacate its position as ultimate moral arbiter. Another facet o...

Use of Pharmacological Interventions in Substance Abuse Treatment Research Paper

Use of Pharmacological Interventions in Substance Abuse Treatment - Research Paper Example Pharmacological interventions in the course of substance abuse treatment involve the use of clinical drugs to help people with drug and alcohol-related problems to get over the National Institute on Drug Abuse, 1999). The use of pharmacological interventions is quite effective in handling exposure to trigger cues for drug taking and drug carving. Pharmacological interventions have been widely used in the treatment of withdrawal symptoms (Cohen, Young, and McChargue, 2009). These interventions normally reduce these symptoms, thus making it easier for the patient to get over his or her addiction quickly enough. Pharmacological intervention programs often involve the use of different types of drugs whose effects can minimize the agony caused by withdrawal symptoms. Special medication which makes the patients feel like they are on the addictive drugs is administered for a certain period of time and then the administration is gradually withdrawn (Rotgers, Morgenstern and Walters, 2003). This way, the brain is able to stabilize, which in effect makes the detoxification process easier and much faster. Some of the drugs used in pharmacological interventions include naltrexone, buprenorphine or naloxone, acamprosate, methadone and LAAM, disulfiram, oxycodone, bupropion, varenicline, naltrexone, and topiramate. naltrexone is used in the intervention of alcohol and opiates related abuse. These pharmacological drugs work by blocking opiate receptors, thereby helping prevent the release of dopamine into the body. The lack of dopamine lessens cravings for opiates and alcohol. Buprenorphine also works by blocking the effects of opiates on the body system.     

FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT Assignments1-3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT Assignments1-3 - Essay Example The retirement benefit costs are set to increase in the state of Virginia. The pension plan in the state is underfunded and overburdened and the employee would have to pay for the pension benefits. Previously, the employees did not contribute to their pension scheme but now they will be forced to contribute towards the pension scheme. There will be no benefit for the taxpayer and savings are not expected from the shift in contribution back to the employee. Some say the shift to the employee contribution and the mandatory 3 percent raise will put more burdens on the Virginia Retirement Scheme; the effect is set to be long-term (Robertson, 2011). Poor investment in technology is one of the issues that many financial services companies face. The progress is little for these organizations in terms of service provision effectiveness and increased efficiency. The scenario has been creating an industry that is poorly automated or highly manual and use of processes that are time consuming; the processes are demeaning and insufficient to the skilled finance professionals (Worth, 2011). The cloud based systems are growing rapidly and the Intuitive technology wants to offer the clients and prospective clients with complete accounting system and cloud financial management. The company, Intuitive Technologies has noted the demand for cloud computing in the market and the need to replace the old on-premises financial management systems of Intacct with the modernized cloud based financial management application (PR-USA.NET, 2011). The political reforms in China have had an effect on the growth of China. The political system in China though unfavorable, it has created an economic growth spurt in the country. The political reforms aim at tackling the country’s social problems. The problems include the huge income inequality and the absence of a national pension scheme (Mitter,

Case Study 11-2, Dealing with Traffic Jams in London

11-2, Dealing with Traffic Jams in London - Case Study Example Project model provides essential information required in the implementation face. Integration of the technology proposed by the project was a challenge since the technology kept changing. The design of the streets does not provide an opportunity for mounting the cameras. The positioning of the cameras required clear roads, which would facilitate the relaying of the pictures. The project faced a political risk since the mayor of the city wanted to build his reputation. The fear of failure was a menace that the project had to deal with. Inadequate experience in the application information technology was another challenge that the project faced. The management strategy that I would recommend for the project include outsourcing competent personnel in the field of information technology to jump start a pilot project in a few streets in the city. Rolling the project in the whole city at one time could not yield effective result. Strategic development of checks and balances for the project would help to avoid inconveniencies. Project methodology identified five critical areas that it would address in piloting the project. Selection of technology for the five key areas was a step taken in order to reduce risks. Tendering of the project to large cooperation was a wise move since large corporations have the ability to meet big project. Provision of small tenders to individuals could help in making effective management of the project (Wysocki, 2011). Management of tenders by Deloitte & Touche was geared towards achieving the best result. After the selection of the best bidder, the project rolled out. Management of the project by a firm like Deloitte was a wise decision since it helped the city government to monitor the work without the political interference. The approach that was developed in the project methodology was appropriate since it eliminated risks that the project

History of Cocaine Use Medical and Recreational Uses

History of Cocaine Use Medical and Recreational Uses Cocaine through the ages: from elixir to poison. Abstract: Cocaine, a plant alkaloid derived from coca leaves is a potent stimulant of CNS and has local anesthetic action as well. Historically, it was ingested in the form of chewing coca leaves, to suppress hunger and fatigue. With discovery of its local anesthetic properties, cocaine was introduced into world of medicine and a local anesthetic, but over last few decades, gained popularity as drug of abuse. Cocaine carries with it great potential for addiction and abuse. It is administered through various routes, smoking free-base crack and intranasal inhalation being most popular. Its primarily metabolized in liver and distributed to all body tissues. Due to lipid nature it tends to concentrate in brain and adipose tissues with chronic administration. Its mainly eliminated through kidneys, but saliva and stools are also routes of excretion. A number of health hazards have been shown to be associated with cocaine use including, cardiac abnormalities, psychological disturbances, addiction pot ential and renal failure with or without rhabdomyolysis. Acute and chronic cocaine toxicities with sufficient collected data are included. Techniques for detecting cocaine in blood including enzyme linked immunoassay and POCT (Point of care screening tests) have also been discussed. An analysis of recent trends in cocaine uses have been studied and presented along with graphical illustrations of epidemiological evidence to support the data. Introduction and objective: Objective: to display how cocaine has evolved through time in its uses and available forms, from simple coca leaf chewing custom of South Americans in 2500 BC to modern forms of freebase-coke among others as one of the most commonly abused toxic drug. Methodology: Data was mainly collected from electronic resources, but text on immunology and pharmacology was also consulted. From electronic sources, I mainly used search engines using a number of keywords including ; history of cocaine, crack, pharmacokinetics of cocaine, mode of action , coca leaf, acute cocaine poisoning, chronic cocaine toxicity, Karl Koller, Sigmund Freud, Immunoassay, etc. I also went through a number of journals available online, and a number of researches conducted which related to cocaine. My aim was to find changes in cocaine use from its discovery to date, and show, with help of collected data, that it has moved in a negative direction. Brief history: Cocaine, use of which, according to some sources, date back to at least 1200 years, has now, rightfully, earned itself a place in drugs of abuse list among others like Caffeine, Nicotine, Amphetamine, etc. To date, cocaines uses have evolved from gaining popularity as topical anesthetic agent, and as component of energizing drinks to becoming one of the most abused drugs in the world. It is a powerfully addictive stimulant drug, which acts by interfering with cerebral and peripheral synaptic transmission among neurons. Mode of action has been described in greater detail later in pharmacodynamics section, but for brief introduction, it interferes with reuptake of, and thereby enhance duration of action of, monoamines, dopamine, serotonin and nor epinephrine Brain PF et.al (1989). It also produces membrane stabilizing effect, more commonly referred to as local anesthetic effect. Latter is achieved through modulation of voltage gated sodium channels and consequent blockade of sensory im pulses conduction from that part of the neuron to central nervous system. Brain PF et.al (1989) Earliest records of cocaine use reveal it to be a part of South American custom of chewing coca leaves. This use is believed to date back to 2500BC. Steven Cohen (1981) Practice of chewing mixture of tobacco and coca leaves was defined by Nicolà ¡s Monardes, in 1569, to induce â€Å"great contentment†. Cocaine is the active component of coca leaves, which also contains nicotine. Karch SB (1998). In 1859, Italian doctor, Paulo Montegazza, after witnessing coca use by natives of Peru, and getting mesmerized by it, decided to study the effects of cocaine on himself. After his studies he concluded his findings into a paper in which he declared cocaine to be medically useful in treating furred tongue in the morning, flatulence and whitening the teeth. Steven R. King (1992). In 1863, French chemist, Angelo Mariani, introduced popular cocavine, Vin Mariani. Vin Mariani wasproduced from mixture of 6 mg coca leaves per fluid ounce of Bordeaux wine. Courtwright DT (2001) Angelo Mariani, creator of Vin Mariani, which later became the hallmark of cocavines was honored with Vatican gold medal by Pope Leo XIII for this achievement. Ethanol, a component of vin mariani, is believed to extract cocaine from coca leaves. In 1884, the concept of cocavine was adopted by John S. Pemberton, with introduction of Pembertons French Wine Coca. After prohibitions imposed on cocaine use and manufacture of cocaine-containing products including cocavine in 1885, Pemberton introduced carbonated, non-alcoholic form of Vin Mariani and called it Coca-cola. Richard Ashley (1975). From 1906 onwards, however, after Pure Food and Drug act was passed, decocainised forms of coca were used for manufacture of coca-cola. In 1884, Austrian physician Sigmund Freud, recommended cocaine for treatment of morphine and alcohol addiction. A strategy that was later employed in 1879 when cocaine was used to treat morphine addiction. Steven Cohen (1981). In his published word, ÃÅ"ber Coca, Sigmund defined effects of cocaine in following words: â€Å"exhilaration and lasting euphoria, which in no way differs from the normal euphoria of the healthy personYou perceive an increase of self-control and possess more vitality and capacity for work.In other words, you are simply normal, and it is soon hard to believe you are under the influence of any drug.Long intensive physical work is performed without any fatigueThis result is enjoyed without any of the unpleasant after-effects that follow exhilaration brought about by alcohol.Absolutely no craving for the further use of cocaine appears after the first, or even after repeated taking of the drug† In 1985, use of cocaine for induction of spinal anesthesia was accidentally discovered by American neurologist Leonard Corning while he studying the effects of cocaine on spinal nerves in a dog and accidentally pierced the dura matter. Corning JL (1885) Cocaine was, however, not used as anesthetic in spinal surgery until 1989 when first planned cocaine induced spinal anesthesia was administered in a surgery, by August Bier. A. Bier, (1899) Coca leaves have traditionally been used as suppressants for fatigue, thirst, and hunger. Its use has now been limited to Andean countries, where coca leaf chewing and coca tea consumption are still practiced. Industrially, coca leaves serve as source of drug cocaine, and in some cosmetic and food industries, including coca cola. Richard Ashley (1975) From 1980s to date, cocaine has gained popularity as drug of abuse, and has widely replaced heroin and other narcotics as drug of abuse, being used in different forms and administered via various routes. Richard Ashley (1975) Discovery: Discovery of cocaine, as local anesthetic, is claim to fame for Austrian ophthalmologist, Karl Koller. Kollers name is credited with demonstration of anesthetic effect of cocaine, in 1884. Karl Koller was a close associate of Sigmund Freud who in same year recommended cocaine to be employed in treatment for morphine and alcohol addiction. Hruby K (1986). Koller studied effects of cocaine on eye by applying the drug to his own eye and later pricking it with pins. He presented his findings to the Heidelberg Ophthalmological Society in same year. Hruby K (1986) After successfully experimenting on himself, Koller used cocaine as local anesthetic in eye surgeries, a use that continues to this day. Cocaine was later employed in other fields including dentistry for induction of local anesthesia, Today, however, cocaine has largely been replaced by other local anesthetic agents like lidocaine, xylocaine, bupivacaine, etc, which produce local anesthetic effect as efficiently and do not carry potential for abuse.Hruby K (1986) Isolation: Friedrich Gaedcke, aGerman chemist, was first person to successfully isolate cocaine from coca leaves, in 1855. An improved isolation process was, however, developed by Albert Niemann, who was enrolled as a Ph.D. student at a German university, University of Gottingen , in 1859. Niemann wrote a dissertation describing steps of isolation which was published in 1860 and was entitled, â€Å" ÃÅ"ber eine neue organische Base in den Cocablà ¤ttern† (On a New Organic Base in the Coca Leaves). F. Gaedcke (1855) Formal Chemical Name (IUPAC) for cocaine: (1R,5S)-methyl 8-methyl-3-(phenylcarbonyloxy)-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2-carboxylate. Chemical structure of cocaine: Structure of cocaine molecule was first defined by Richard Willstà ¤tter in 1898. Medicalisation and popularization: Ever since its discovery, cocaines medical uses were quickly exploited through research and experimentation. Spanish physicians described first medical uses of cocaine as early as 1596, but the use of cocaine did not become more widespread until 1859, when Albert Niemann isolated the drug from coca leaves. Soon after it was isolated, cocaine was used to try to cure almost all the illnesses and maladies that were known to man. (Albert Niemann 1860) 1859s Montagezzis discovery about cocaine being useful in treating furred tongue in the morning, flatulence and whitening the teeth, was one of the earliest recorded studies that signified possible medical importance of cocaine. In 1879, Vassili von Anrep, of the University of Wà ¼rzburg, demonstrated analgesic properties of cocaine in an experiment that he conducted on a frog. He prepared two separate jars, one containing cocaine-salt solution, other containing salt water serving as control. One of frogs legs was submerged in cocaine solution and other in control followed by stimulation of leg in different ways. Reactions in two legs varied considerably. In the same year, cocaine began to be used in treatment of morphine addiction. The commercial production of purified cocaine gained momentum only in the mid-1880s. Its greatest medical value was in ophthalmology. Eye-surgery stood in desperate need of a good local anesthetic. This was because in eye operations it is often essential for a conscious patient to move his eye as directed by the surgeon without flinching. Karl Kollers demonstration of anesthetic properties of cocaine in 1884 was an important breakthrough establishing cocaines importance, medically when it was introduced in Germany as local anesthetic for eye surgery. (Altman Aj et.al 1985) Kollers discovery was later followed in 1985 by Leonard Cornings accidental demonstration of cocaines use in induction of spinal anesthesia, which became formally employed in spinal surgery in 1989 when first planned cocaine induced spinal anesthesia was administered by August Bier. Medical use of cocaine has largely been restricted to induction of local anesthesia. Even as local anesthetic agent, discovery of hazardous effects of cocaine use led to early development of safer alternative drugs like lidocaine, etc. One of its first non medical uses of cocaine was in military. In 1883 Theodor Aschenbrandt administered cocaine to members of the Bavarian army. It was found that the drug enhanced their endurance on maneuver. His positive findings were published in a German medical journal, which brought the effects of this wonder drug to a wider medical audience, including Sigmund Freud. Following is taken from â€Å"On cocaine† by Sigmund Freud. â€Å"A few minutes after taking cocaine, one experiences a certain exhilaration and feeling of lightness. One feels a certain furriness on the lips and palate, followed by a feeling of warmth in the same areas; if one now drinks cold water, it feels warm on the lips and cold in the throat. One other occasions the predominant feeling is a rather pleasant coolness in the mouth and throat. During this first trial I experienced a short period of toxic effects, which did not recur in subsequent experiments. Breathing became slower and deeper and I felt tired and sleepy; I yawned frequently and felt somewhat dull. After a few minutes the actual cocaine euphoria began, introduced by repeated cooling eructation. Immediately after taking the cocaine I noticed a slight slackening of the pulse and later a moderate increase. I have observed the same physical signs of the effect of cocaine in others, mostly people my own age. The most constant symptom proved to be the repeated cooling eructation. This is often accompanied by a rumbling which must originate from high up in the intestine; two of the people I observed, who said they were able to recognize movements in their stomachs, declared emphatically that they had repeatedly detected such movements. Often, at the outset of the cocaine effect, the subjects alleged that they experienced an intense feeling of heat in the head. I noticed this in myself as well in the course of some later experiments, but on other occasions it was absent. In only two cases did coca give rise to dizziness. On the whole the toxic effects of coca are of short duration, and much less intense than those produced by effective doses of quinine or salicylate of soda; they seem to become even weaker after repeated use of cocaine.† Cocaine was sold as over the counter drug until 1916. It was widely used in tonics, toothache cures, patent medicines, and chocolate cocaine tablets. Prospective buyers were advised (in the words of pharmaceutical firm Parke-Davis) that cocaine could make the coward brave, the silent eloquent, and render the sufferer insensitive to pain. Cocaine was a popular ingredient in wines, notably Vin Mariani. Coca wine received endorsement from prime-ministers, royalty and even the Pope. The Vatican gold medal that Angelo Mariani received for it will forever signify the popularity of cocaine through that period of time. By the late Victorian, era use of cocaine had appeared as a vice in literature, for instance, Arthur Conan Doyles fictional Sherlock Holmes. Number of admissions to drug treated programme in each year is plotted against time for both cocaine and heroin. Graph clearly displays the shift in trend from use of heroin towards cocaine. A combination gaining popularity is speedball, which is formulated by mixing heroin with cocaine. From 1980s to date, cocaine has gained popularity as drug of abuse, being used in different forms and administered via various routes, as evident by figure above which displays the escalation in crack / cocaine usage with concomitant reduction in heroin use. Prohibition: In first part of the twentieth century, with addictive properties of cocaine becoming more apparent with studies, cocaine found itself legally prohibited. Harrison Narcotics Tax Act (1914) outlawed unauthorized sales and distribution of cocaine incorrectly classifying it as a narcotic. In United Nations 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, cocaine was listed as Schedule I drug, thereby making its manufacture, distribution, import, export, trade, use and possession illegal unless sanctioned by the state. In 1970s controlled substances act, cocaine was listed as a Schedule II drug in United States. It carries high abuse potential but also serves medicinal purpose. It is a class A drug in the United Kingdom, and a List 1 drug of Opium law in the Netherlands. Modern Usage: In late 90s and early 2000s, crack became very popular among Americans and in past few years has also taken its toll on UK. According to an estimate, U.S cocaine market exceeded $ 70 billion in year 2005, demonstrating the popularity of this menace. News reports are flooded with celebrity arrests on charge of cocaine posession or use. A section on recent facts and figures related to cocaine discusses the modern trends in greater detail later. Addiction potential: Along with amphetamine, cocaine is one of the most widely abused drugs in the world. Powerful stimulant properties of cocaine are beyond doubt. By inhibiting neuronal reuptake of excitatory neurotransmitters, dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine, cocaine enhances synaptic concentrations of these neurotransmitters in specific brain areas; nucleus accumbens and amygdala which are referred to as the reward center of brain. During 1980s, cocaine widely replaced heroin as drug of abuse, due to its euphoric properties, wide availability and low cost. Different forms and Routes of administration of cocaine: Smoking: Crack, freebase or smokable form of cocaine, was produced and became popular drug of abuse in 1980s. Earliest reports of crack use indicate an epidemic in Bahamas from 1980. By 1985, crack gained popular ranking among drug users across America.Crack is produced by mixing 2 parts cocaine hydrochloride with one part baking soda (sodium bicarbonate). It differs from cocaine hydrochloride in being more volatile, a property that makes it better suited for inhalation administration (smoking) than cocaine hydrochloride. Smoking freebase cocaine releases methylecgonidine, an effect not achieved with insufflation or injection (described later), thereby making it a specific test marker for freebase cocaine smokers. Studies suggest that methylecgonidine is more harmful to heart, liver and lungs than other byproducts of cocaine. Inhalation leads to rapid absorption of cocaine into bloodstream via lungs, reaching brain within five seconds of ingestion. Following rush exceeds snorting in intensity but does not last long. Oral: Ancient tradition of South Americans to chew coca leaves in same manner is tobacco, is another method of cocaine consumption. Alternatively, coca leaves may be consumed like tea by mixing with liquid. Coca leaf consumers have raised a controversy over whether it should be abandoned or not. Rationale behind this controversy is that strong acid in our stomach hydrolyzes cocaine, attenuating its effects on brain; therefore, unless it is taken with an alkaline substance, such as lime, which neutralizes stomachs acid, cocaine intake should not be criminalized. Cocaine is also used as oral anesthetic, both medically and unofficially. Cocaine powder is applied to gums to numb the gingiva and teeth. Colloquial terms for this route of administration are; numbies, gummies and cocoa puffs. Another method for oral administration, commonly known as snow bomb, is to pack cocaine in rolled up paper and swallowing it. Insufflation: Colloquial terms for which are; snorting, sniffing, or blowing is believed to be most commonly employed method of cocaine ingestion in west. Cocaine is poured on a flat, hard surface and divided into fine powder before being insufflated in â€Å"bumps†, â€Å"lines†, or â€Å"rails†. Devices used as aid in insufflation are known as â€Å"tooters†. Anything small and hollow, such as straws cut short, can serve as a tooter. Injection: This achieves the greatest bioavailability, 100%, in shortest span of time, since drug is directly administered into bloodstream saving time and reduced bioavailability that occurs with drug absorption from site of drug administration into bloodstream. Resultant rush is intense and rapid. Risk of contracting blood-borne infections is greatest. â€Å"Speedball†, a mixture of cocaine with heroin used intravenously is a popular and dangerous method of cocaine ingestion. It claims credit for many deaths, including celebrities like John Belushi, Chris Farley ,Mitch Hedberg, River Phoenix and Layne Staley. ADME Pharmacokinetics: Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism and Excretion of Cocaine. Before beginning discussion about pharmacokinetics or ADME of cocaine, table below summarizes the relationship of route of administration with onset of action, time taken to achieve peak effect, duration of action and half life. (Clarke, 1986) Route of administration Onset Peak effect (min.) Duration (min.) Half-life (min.) Inhalation 7s 1-5 20 40-60 Injection 15s 3-5 20-30 40-60 Nasal 3min 15 45-90 60-90 Oral 10min 60 60 60-90 Absorption: Absorption refers to movement of drug from site of administration into bloodstream.As with any drug, absorption of cocaine depends on various factors and varies considerably with them. Factors which influence drug absorption include; drug formulation, route of administration, lipid solubility, pH of the medium, blood supply and surface area available for absorption. As evident from tabulated figures above, cocaine differs greatly in onset of action varying between 7 seconds up to 10 minutes from one route of administration to another. This is a factor of absorption of drug which depends on route of administration. Each route is separately discussed below in greater details. (Clarke, 1986). Orally administered cocaine: Cocaine induces vasoconstriction in vessels supplying oral mucosa and resultant reduction in blood supply slows down its absorption by decreasing surface area from which drug is absorbed. Therefore when orally administered, drug is slowly absorbed into bloodstream, taking roughly 30 minutes. Absorption is also incomplete; roughly one third of administered dose is absorbed. Due to slow absorption, onset of action is also delayed and peak effect is, however, not achieved until about 50-90 minutes after administration. Effect is, however, longer lasting, roughly 60 minutes after attainment of peak effect. Another factor affecting absorption of orally administered cocaine is pH of the stomach. As previously mentioned, stomach acid hydrolyzes cocaine, resulting in inadequate and incomplete absorption. To improve absorption it is common practice to take cocaine along with an alkaline liquid to neutralize acidic pH. Insufflations: Insufflations results in coating of the mucosa covering sinuses with cocaine, from where it is absorbed. Absorption is similar to that from oral cavity, cocaine induced vasoconstriction beneath mucosa results in slow and incomplete absorption (30-60%). Efficiency of absorption increases with concentration of drug. According to a study, time taken to reach peak effect via this route of administration averages 14.6 minutes. Injection: Injected cocaine is directly administered into bloodstream eliminating need for absorption. According same study, as mentioned for insufflation, time taken to reach peak effect of cocaine through injection averaged 3.1 minutes, roughly five times less than time for insufflation. Smoking: Smoking crack delivers large quantities of the drug to the lungs, resultant absorption is rapid and effects created are comparable to intravenous administration. These effects, which are felt almost immediately after smoking, are intense and last for 5-10 minutes. According to Perez-Reyes et al, 1982, volunteers who smoked 50 mg of cocaine base in a controlled study experiment achieved rapidly elevated plasma cocaine level compared to intravenous cocaine administration. Distribution: Following absorption into bloodstream, cocaine is distributed, via blood, to all body tissues including vital organs like brain, lungs, liver, heart, kidneys and adrenals. It crosses both blood-brain and placental barrier. Being lipid soluble, it easily traverses biological membranes via simple diffusion. It is believed to accumulate in brain and adipose tissue with repeated administration, owing to its lipid nature. In an experiment, distribution and kinetics of cocaine in human body were studied using Positron Emission Topography (PET) technique with radioactively labeled (carbon-11) cocaine on 14 healthy male subjects. Rate of uptake and clearance were found to vary among organs. Following results were obtained for time, in minutes, taken by radioactively labeled cocaine to reach peak value in following organs: Lungs: 45 seconds. Heart and Kidneys: 2-3 minutes. Adrenals: 7-9 minutes. Liver: 10 minutes. Liver, which is the key site for metabolism of cocaine is where distribution is most sluggish, increasing the half-life of cocaine. The Journal of Nuclear Medicine ( 1992 ) Metabolism: As already mentioned, cocaine is primarily metabolised in liver. It is estimated to get metabolized within two hours of administration. Half-life varies between 0.7 1.5 hours (Clarke, 1986), depending on route of administration among various other factors. There are three possible routes for bio-transformation of cocaine. Ester linkages in cocaine are hydrolyzed by plasma pseudocholinesterases and hepatic enzymes, human liver carboxylesterase form 1 (hCE-1)and human liver carboxylesterase form 2 (hCE-2). Benzoyl group is eliminated to produce ecgonine methyl ester. This is the major route for metabolism of cocaine. A secondary route, suggested by Fleming et al. 1990, proposes spontaneous hydrolysis, possibly non-enzymatic, followed by demethylation to produce benzoylecgonine. N-demethylation of cocaine is a minor route which leads to formation of norcocaine. Final degradation of metabolites yields ecgonine. Principal inactive metabolites are; benzoylecgonine, ecgonine methyl ester, and ecgonine itself. Norcocaine is an active metabolite and may reveal itself in acute intoxication. Metabolism of cocaine may be influenced by a number of factors: Alcohol:When cocaine is co-administered with alcohol a compound called Cocaethylene is formed. Cocaethylene is associated with an increased risk of liver damage and premature death. Pregnancy. Liver disease. Aged men. Congenital cholinesterase deficiency. In all the aforementioned conditions, except alcohol, rate of cocaine metabolism is reduced, leading to elevated levels and duration of action of cocaine, enhancing its harmful effects of on the body. Following is a schematic representation of metabolic pathways of cocaine. According to Andrew (1997) have found that the continuous use of alcohol with cocaine produce cocaethylene which is similar in the action of cocaine but it has more blood stream concentration by three to five times than cocaine as a result of its high half life. Its much attractive to be used for abuse as a result of slower removal from the body. Different types of side effects are associated with cocaethylene like liver damage, seizure and immuno compromised functioning . Cocaethylene has more possibility for sudden death by 18 25 times than using cocaine alone . Butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) has been implicated as being important in metabolism of cocaine, even though it has limited capacity to fully hydrolyze cocaine. BChE is specially essential for cocaine detoxification. A lot of research has been done to study the effect of employing this enzyme in cocaine detoxification and in anti-cocaine medications. The rate at which human BChE hydrolyzes cocaine is slow; however, scientists at Eppley Institute and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska, have developed a mutant (A328Y) of human butyrylcholinesterase, which promises four fold greater efficiency in accelerating cocaine metabolism. Elimination or excretion: 1-9% of cocaine is excreted unaltered in urine along with metabolites, ecgonine methyl ester, benzoylecgonine, and ecgonine. Unchanged cocaine may also be eliminated through GI tract and/or be excreted in saliva. Most of the parent drug is eliminated from plasma within 4 hours after administration but metabolites may remain detectable for up to 144 hours after administration. Elimination of cocaine via kidneys is enhanced by acidification of urine. As already mentioned, cocaine easily traverses placental barrier, and the active metabolite, norcocaine is believed to persist in amniotic fluid for up to 5 days. In lactating mothers, cocaine and benzoylecgonine are excreted into maternal milk and can be detected up to 36 hours after administration. In smokers, cocaine is rapidly eliminated through exhalation of vapor. Ambre J et.al (1988) In an experiment, the effects of chronic oral cocaine administration in healthy volunteer subjects with a history of cocaine abuse were investigated. There were sixteen daily sessions of oral cocaine administration while subjects were kept in a controlled clinical ward. In every session subjects received five equal doses of oral cocaine at one hour interval. Throughout sessions, cocain

How Do Humans Acquire Language? Essay -- essays research papers fc

How Do Humans Acquire Language?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Humans live in a world full of communication. Humans possess a native language that separates them from other animals. Language is developed within the first few years of a person’s life. By the time one is a child; he can speak and understand almost as well as an adult. Children world-wide exhibit similar patterns of language acquisition even though they may be learning different languages. How humans learn even the most complicated languages has perplexed the minds of many scientists. Two of the most popular beliefs on language acquisition today are held by Skinner and Chomsky. Their opposing belief on how humans acquire language has become the two standard views on this complicated issue; however, other researchers have also reported convincing theories.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some theories of language acquisition that are not as commonly recognized as Skinner’s or Chomsky’s theories are still important in understanding language development. â€Å"Even before using any words, the infant learns to communicate through gestures, facial expressions, and reciprocal vocalization with a caretaker† (Levine 4). These nonverbal behaviors are very important for an individual’s speech development. Another author, Fromkin reported that: Children diagnosed at birth as mentally retarded acquire language in the same way as those with normal intelligence. Not only can children learn any of the thousands of languages that exist in the world, they do so without being overtly taught. It is difficult, if not impossible, to account for this ability without assuming that the brain is genetically ‘pre-wired’ for language. (2) One renowned researcher of language acquisition, Pinker, endorses language as being an instinct. The term instinct conveys the idea that: People know how to talk in more or less the sense that spiders know how to spin webs. Web-spinning was not invented by some unsung spider genius and does not depend on having had the right education or on having an aptitude for architecture or the construction trades. Rather, spiders spin spider webs because they have spider brains, which give them the urge to spin and the competence to succeed. Although there are differences between webs and words, [†¦] it helps to make sense of the phenomena. (5) Pinker also acknowledged that Darwin was the first to articu... ...suggested that language was developed through observational learning and classical conditioning. Some people believe that language development is a combination of the two theories and language development cannot occur unless both are present. Thus far, it is not precisely known how humans develop language. If researchers discovered how humans acquire language, they may be able to solve the problem individuals with hearing impairments experience or prevent hearing impairments from occurring. Works Cited Berry, Mildred. Language Disorders of Children: The Bases and Diagnoses. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1969. Fromkin, Victoria. â€Å"The State of Brain/Language Research.† Language, Communication, and the Brain. 66 (1988): 189-214. Gazzaniga, Michael & Heatherton, Todd. Psychological Science: Mind, Brain, and Behavior. New York: Norton, 2003. Hamaguchi, Patricia. Childhood Speech, Language, and Listening Problems: What Every Parents Should Know. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1995. Levine, Linda. Great Beginnings for Early Language Learning. Tucson: Communication Skill Builders, 1988. Pinker, Steven. The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Language. New York: Morrow, 1994.

Bacteria and Growth Temperature

INTRODUCTION The environments of Earth include conditions in which physical and chemical extremes make it very difficult for organisms to survive. Conditions that can destroy living cells and biomolecules include high and low temperatures; low amounts of oxygen and water; and high levels of salinity, acidity, alkalinity, and radiation. Examples of extreme environments on Earth are hot geysers and oceanic thermal vents, Antarctic sea ice, and oxygen-depleted rivers and lakes. Organisms that have evolved special adaptations that permit them to live in extreme conditions are called â€Å"extremophiles. â€Å"Photo by: Dmitry Pichugin â€Å"Thermophiles† are microorganisms with optimal growth temperatures between 60 and 108 degrees Celsius, isolated from a number of marine and terrestrial geothermally-heated habitats including shallow terrestrial hot springs, hydrothermal vent systems, sediment from volcanic islands, and deep sea hydrothermal vents. -Encyclopedia of Environmenta l Microbiology, 2002. vol. 3. Temperature and bacteria The lowest temperature at which a particular species will grow is the minimum growth temperature, while the maximum growth temperature is the highest temperature at which they will grow.The temperature at which their growth is optimal is called the optimum growth temperature. In general, the maximum and minimum growth temperatures of any particular type of bacteria are about 30 °F (-1 °C) apart. Most bacteria thrive at temperatures at or around that of the human body 98. 6 °F (37 °C), and some, such as Escherichia coli, are normal parts of the human intestinal flora. These organisms are mesophiles (moderate-temperature-loving), with an optimum growth temperature between 77 °F (25 °C) and 104 °F (40 °C).Mesophiles have adapted to thrive in temperatures close to that of their host. Psychrophiles, which prefer cold temperatures, are divided into two groups. One group has an optimal growth temperature of about 59 ° F (15 °C), but can grow at temperatures as low as 32 °F (0 °C). These organisms live in ocean depths or Arctic regions. Other psychrophiles that can also grow at 32 °F (0 °C) have an optimal growth temperature between 68 °F (20 °C) and 86 °F (30 °C). These organisms, sometimes called psychrotrophs, are often those associated with food spoilage under refrigeration.Thermophiles thrive in very hot environments, many having an optimum growth temperature between 122 °F (50 °C) and 140 °F (60 °C), similar to that of hot springs in Yellowstone National Park. Such organisms thrive in compost piles, where temperatures can rise as high as 140 °F (60 °C). Extreme thermophiles grow at temperatures above 195 °F (91 °C). Along the sides of hydrothermal vents on the ocean bottom 217 mi (350 km) north of the Galapagos Islands, for example, bacteria grow in temperatures that can reach 662 °F (350 °C). pH and bacteriaLike temperature, pH also plays a role in dete rmining the ability of bacteria to grow or thrive in particular environments. Most commonly, bacteria grow optimally within a narrow range of pH between 6. 7 and 7. 5. Acidophiles, however, prefer acidic conditions. For example, Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, which occurs in drainage water from coal mines, can survive at pH 1. Other bacteria, such as Vibrio cholera, the cause of cholera, can thrive at a pH as high as 9. 0. Osmotic pressure and bacteria Osmotic pressure is another limiting factor in the growth of bacteria.Bacteria are about 80-90% water; they require moisture to grow because they obtain most of their nutrients from their aqueous environment. Examples of Extreme Communities Deep Sea. The deep sea environment has high pressure and cold temperatures (1 to 2 degrees Celsius [33. 8 to 35. 6 degrees Fahrenheit]), except in the vicinity of hydrothermal vents, which are a part of the sea floor that is spreading, creating cracks in the earth's crust that release heat and chemical s into the deep sea environment and create underwater geysers.In these vents, the temperature may be as high as 400 degrees Celsius (752 degrees Fahrenheit), but water remains liquid owing to the high pressure. Hydrothermal vents have a pH range from about 3 to 8 and unusual chemistry. In 1977, the submarine Alvin found life 2. 6 kilometers (1. 6 miles) deep near vents along the East Pacific Rise. Life forms ranged from microbes to invertebrates that were adapted to these extreme conditions. Deep sea environments are home to psychrophiles (organisms that like cold temperatures), hyperthermophiles (organisms that like very high temperatures), and piezophiles (organisms adapted to high pressures).Hypersaline Environments. Hypersaline environments are high in salt concentration and include salt flats, evaporation ponds, natural lakes (for example, Great Salt Lake), and deep sea hypersaline basins. Communities living in these environments are often dominated by halophilic (salt-loving) organisms, including bacteria, algae, diatoms, and protozoa. There are also halophilic yeasts and other fungi, but these normally cannot tolerate environments as saline as other tax. Deserts. Deserts can be hot or cold, but they are always dry.The Atacoma desert in Chile is one of the oldest, driest hot deserts, sometimes existing for decades without any precipitation at all. The coldest, driest places are the Antarctic Dry Valleys, where primary inhabitants are cyanobacteria, algae, and fungi that live a few millimeters beneath the sandstone rock surface. Although these endolithic (living in rocks) communities are based on photosynthesis, the organisms have had to adapt to long periods of darkness and extremely dry conditions.Light dustings of snow that may melt in the Antarctic summer are often the only sources of water for these organisms. Ice. Permafrost, and Snow. From high-altitude glaciers, often colored pink from red-colored algae, to the polar permafrost, life has evolved t o use frozen water as a habitat. In some instances, the organisms, such as bacteria, protozoa, and algae, are actually living in liquid brine (very salty water) that is contained in pockets of the ice. In other cases, microorganisms found living on or in ice are not so much ice lovers as much as ice survivors.These organisms may have been trapped in the ice and simply possessed sufficient adaptations to enable them to persist. Atmosphere. The ability for an organism to survive in the atmosphere depends greatly on its ability to withstand desiccation and exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Although microorganisms can be found in the upper layers of the atmosphere, it is unclear whether these constitute a functional ecosystem or simply an aerial suspension of live but largely inactive organisms and their spores. Outer Space.The study of extremeophiles and the ability of some to survive exposure to the conditions of outer space has raised the possibility that life might be found elsewhe re in the universe and the possibility that simple life forms may be capable of traveling through space, for example from one planet to another. Research Findings Newfound gene may help bacteria survive in extreme environments Resulting microbial lipids may also signify oxygen dips in Earth’s history. Jennifer Chu, MIT News Office July 26, 2012 A newly discovered gene in bacteria may help microbes survive in low-oxygen environments.A bacterial cell with the gene, left, exhibits protective membranes. A cell without the gene, right, produces no membranes. Image: Paula Welander In the days following the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, methane-eating bacteria bloomed in the Gulf of Mexico, feasting on the methane that gushed, along with oil, from the damaged well. The sudden influx of microbes was a scientific curiosity: Prior to the oil spill, scientists had observed relatively few signs of methane-eating microbes in the area. Now researchers at MIT have discovered a bacterial gene that may explain this sudden influx of methane-eating bacteria.This gene enables bacteria to survive in extreme, oxygen-depleted environments, lying dormant until food such as methane from an oil spill, and the oxygen needed to metabolize it become available. The gene codes for a protein, named HpnR, that is responsible for producing bacterial lipids known as 3-methylhopanoids. The researchers say producing these lipids may better prepare nutrient-starved microbes to make a sudden appearance in nature when conditions are favorable, such as after the Deepwater Horizon accident.The lipid produced by the HpnR protein may also be used as a biomarker, or a signature in rock layers, to identify dramatic changes in oxygen levels over the course of geologic history. â€Å"The thing that interests us is that this could be a window into the geologic past,† says MIT Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences (EAPS) postdoc Paula Welander, who led the research. â€Å" In the geologic record, many millions of years ago, we see a number of mass extinction events where there is also evidence of oxygen depletion in the ocean.It’s at these key events, and immediately afterward, where we also see increases in all these biomarkers as well as indicators of climate disturbance. It seems to be part of a syndrome of warming, ocean deoxygenation and biotic extinction. The ultimate causes are unknown. † Welander and EAPS Professor Roger Summons have published their results this week in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. This image shows that 5 different extreme environments that the extremeophile live. Such as, Sea Vennts at sea floor, Yellowstone Hotsprings, Antartica Subglacial Lakes, at Atacama Desert, and lastly at Jupiter (Space).Europa is one of Jupiter’s moons, and is covered in ice. Scientists have recently uncovered strong evidence of liquid water beneath Europa’s ice, which may be due to hydrothermal vent s, which may in turn host bacteria. Credit: Nicolle Rager Fuller, NSF REFFERENCES 1. http://science. jrank. org/pages/714/Bacteria. html#ixzz28JlGDpue 2. Horikoshi, K. , and W. D. Grant. Extremophiles: Microbial Life in Extreme Environments. New York: Wiley-Liss, 1998. 3. Madigan, M. T. , and B. L. Marrs. â€Å"Extremophiles. † Scientific American 276, no. 4 (1997): 82–87. 4.Rothschild, L. J. , and R. L. Mancinelli. â€Å"Life in Extreme Environments. † Nature 409 (2001): 1092–1101. 5. Seckbach, J. , ed. Journey to Diverse Microbial Worlds: Adaptation to Exotic Environments. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000. 6. http://www. biologyreference. com/Ep-Fl/Extreme-Communities. html#b#ixzz28Jn5EptD 7. http://www. nsf. gov/news/special_reports/sfs/index. jsp? id=life;sid=ext ASSIGNMENT 1 BACTERIAS THAT LIVE IN EXTREAM ENVIRONMENT NAME : SARANKUMAR PERUMALU MATRIX NO : 4112033021 LECTURER : MR MOOHAMAD ROPANING SULONG

Simple Fermer (to Close) Verb Conjugations in French

Simple Fermer (to Close) Verb Conjugations in French In French, the verb  fermer  means to close. To make this infinitive verb more useful and construct complete sentences, we need to conjugate it. This lesson will show you how thats done so you can use it in the form of closed or closing, among other simple verb forms. Conjugating the French Verb  Fermer Among all the French verb conjugations, those that end in -er  are the easiest to conjugate for the simple fact that there are so many of them.  Fermer  is a  regular -ER verb  and it follows the same pattern as  fà ªter  (to celebrate),  donner  (to give), and countless others. It becomes easier with each new verb you learn. Identifying the verb stem is always the first step in conjugations. For  fermer  that is  ferm-. To this, we add a variety of infinitive endings that pair the subject pronoun with the appropriate tense for the sentence. For instance, I am closing is je ferme and we will close is nous fermerons. It will definitely help your  memory if you  practice these in context. Subject Present Future Imperfect je ferme fermerai fermais tu fermes fermeras fermais il ferme fermera fermait nous fermons fermerons fermions vous fermez fermerez fermiez ils ferment fermeront fermaient The Present Participle of  Fermer The  present participle  of fermer  is  fermant. This is formed by adding -ant  to the verb stem. Its an adjective as well as a verb, noun, or gerund. The Past Participle and Passà © Composà © The  passà © composà ©Ã‚  is a common way to express the past tense closed in French. To construct this, begin with the subject pronoun and a conjugation of the  auxiliary verb  avoir, then add the  past participle  fermà ©. For example, I closed is jai fermà © while we closed is nous avons fermà ©. More Simple  Fermer  Conjugations to Learn When the act of closing is in some way questionable, the subjunctive verb form is used. In a similar manner, the conditional verb mood implies that the closing will only happen if something else does as well. You will find the passà © simple in formal writing. Learning both it and the imperfect subjunctive will do wonders for your reading comprehension. Subject Subjunctive Conditional Passà © Simple Imperfect Subjunctive je ferme fermerais fermai fermasse tu fermes fermerais fermas fermasses il ferme fermerait ferma fermà ¢t nous fermions fermerions fermà ¢mes fermassions vous fermiez fermeriez fermà ¢tes fermassiez ils ferment fermeraient fermà ¨rent fermassent In short, direct requests and demands, use the imperative form. When doing so, theres no need to include the subject pronoun: simplify tu ferme down to ferme. Imperative (tu) ferme (nous) fermons (vous) fermez

Tender at the bone Ruth and her Mother essays

Tender at the bone Ruth and her Mother essays Ruth Reichl makes it obvious from the beginning of Tender at the Bone, that she grew up in a far from ordinary family, her mother being the cause of much of this weirdness. Her mother plays the central role in her family and thus has a powerful impact on Ruth. This impact is vast and cannot be defined as entirely positive or negative, but it can be said that Ruths mother has had such an intense influence on Ruth that many of her choices and actions later in her life are determined by those early years spent with her mother. One of the first things Ruth mentions about her mother is her love for everything exotic. From her choice in food, to her choice in home dcor, Ruths mother is the extreme experimentalist. She doesnt conform to the standards of society, be it by way of her everything stew, which is admittedly made from 2-week-old turkey, or by her entirely gold gilded bathroom. While some would say this is merely quirky, it goes beyond that, to Ruths mother, her peculiarities and strange behaviors are a source of pride. She is not ashamed of her ways, and openly shares her latest recipes, even if they do cause a minor outbreak of food poisoning. This attitude affects Ruth greatly; She adopts an ability to look past the boundaries of the ordinary, and is thus introduced to a life of people and experiences that is truly unique. This is first really seen when she befriends Serafina. Serafina should have been off limits in terms of friendship to Ruth, social barriers should have held her back f rom developing a close relationship with her, yet Ruth does not let the fact that Serafina is black, and eventually a black activist, stand in the way of her being Serafinas closest companion. When Serafina comes up with the spur of the moment idea of visiting her homeland of Algeria, Ruth quickly packs her bag and runs off, never questioning the sanity of the...

Water pollution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Water pollution - Essay Example Water pollution The thesis will contend that water pollution comprises thermal pollution, industrial effluent and flooding (Agarwal,115). Though, there is solution for the prevention of problems such as making law for the control of water pollution or creating dams to control flooding among others. Industrial influent is the main cause of water pollution, since many factories releases the polluted water into the water bodies like rivers or lakes and pollutes the water in those sources. The water which are discharged from the industries to the water sources contains numerous chemicals such as acids, hydroxides and heavy metals like mercury which are detrimental to the aquatic life and water (Agarwal, 115). If polluted water is taken by human beings it can cause diseases like cancer, disrupt hormone typhoid fever, stomach ache suppression of the hormone system in swimming pool it causes skin rushes Also illegal discharge of the wastes from industries to which contains chemicals kill the nature lives i n lakes and rivers like crab, fish among others. Wastes from industries discharge into the water bodies contaminates water with chemicals and heavy metals like asbestos, petrochemicals and mercury which are very harmful when consumed with human beings or have the negative effects on the aquatic. When oil spills in water, from tankers or from the ships in seas or lakes also causes pollution in lakes and ocean. Since oil does not dissolve in water it forms a thick sludge on the water surface that prevents air circulation thereby causing the death of aquatic.

Denver International Airport Baggage Handling System Case Study

Denver International Airport Baggage Handling System - Case Study Example The construction by the Denver International Airport baggage-handling system began in 1991 and completed in 1994. The project faced numerous challenges in the course of its implementation leading to the delay of the opening of the Denver international airport by sixteen months. Implementation of the project failed due to software, mechanical and electrical difficulties in its operation. This study aims at enumerating the various issues, management decisions and the consequences of the decisions in the construction of the Denver International Airport baggage-handling system. Major influences The major influence for the construction of the Denver International Airport baggage-handling system was the political scenario in Denver. Mayoral election at Denver was a significant influence in the construction of the Denver International Airport baggage-handling system, as the business community made Pena and Tooley sign agreement for the development of the airport. The need to, please the pub lic made Pena, the winner of the election; lead activities for the erection of a new airport in Denver. The other influence for the construction of Denver International Airport baggage-handling system was the lackluster economic performance leading to the need to ignite economic development. Economic development necessitated increased investments to aid against economic free-fall. This was through infrastructural development by issue of bonds by the Denver city municipality. Another influence for the Denver International Airport baggage-handling system construction was the congestion in the Stapleton airport, favorable geographical local as air transport hub and need to cater for increased air transport in the region. Circumstances Various circumstances led to the need for an airport with an efficient baggage handling at Denver. The circumstance that led to the need was increased tourism, oil, and real estate industries in the region. This led to operational inefficiency at the Stap leton airport because it limited the Denver’s access to business people. Congestion and traffic delays at the Stapleton airport were the reason for improvement in the airport or another airport to ease the congestion. Attractiveness of Denver as an airline hub destination due to its geographical location and increased population was also the reason for the need of a new airport with an efficient baggage handling system. These circumstances led to the construction of Denver Airport and culminated in the construction of the Denver International airport baggage-handling system. Issues faced by the BAE Automated Systems: Denver International Airport Baggage handling system 1.0 Planning The planning of the baggage handling